Into the Cosmos Page 43
157. John McCannon, “Positive Heroes at the Pole: Celebrity Status, Socialist-Realist Ideals, and the Soviet Myth of the Arctic, 1932–39,” Russian Review 56, no. 3 (1997): 347.
158. Slava Gerovitch, “Memories of Space and the Spaces of Memory: Remembering
Sergei Korolev,” in Maurer et al., Soviet Space Culture.
159. Lewis, “Red Stuff,” chapter 4, “Death, Destruction, and Mourning: The End of the Golden Age of Spaceflight.”
160. In Russian, “Poshatalis’, povolynili, ni khruna ne sdelali, ele seli”; see Ponomareva, Zhenskoe litso kosmosa, 246.
161. Viktor Stepanov, Iurii Gagarin (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1987).
162. Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 645.
163. David R. Scott and Alexei A. Leonov, Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), 229–30.
164. Lewis, “Red Stuff,” 161.
165. Clark, Soviet Novel, 129.
166. McCannon, Red Arctic, 138.
167. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:347.
168. Ibid., 3:205.
169. Lewis, “Red Stuff,” 99.
170. On April 17, 1961, just five days after Gagarin’s flight, Pravda had already featured an article, “Unprecedented Exploit of Mastering Outer Space Inspires Soviet People to New Working Victories”; see Rockwell, “Molding of the Rising Generation,” 31. On the Stakhanovite movement, see Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935–1941 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
171. McCannon, “Positive Heroes at the Pole,” 350.
172. Lewis, “Red Stuff,” 158.
5. The Sincere Deceiver
1. Vladimir Ivanovich Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina (Saratov: Izdatel’stvo Letopis’, 2001), 210.
2. Gary Minkley and Martin Legassick, “‘Not Telling’: Secrecy, Lies, and History,” His-
Notes to pages 108–112 283
tory and Theory 39 (December 2000): 2, 5. The historiography of lying is sparse. The December 2000 issue of History and Theory was devoted to history and truth-telling. Harry G. Frankfurt, a Princeton philosophy professor, offers many intriguing ideas in his On Bullshit (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005) and On Truth (New York: Random House, 2006). Sissela Bok has examined the problem of deception in relation to state regimes of secrecy in Secrets: On the Ethics of Concealment and Revelation (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982).
3. As one of Gagarin’s teachers once wrote, a study of Gagarin can reveal “who we ourselves are.” Serge Mikhailovich Belotserkovskii, Pervyi kosmonavt: Istoriia zhizni i gibeli (Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 2000), 10.
4. Cited in Jeremy Campbell, The Liar’s Tale: A History of Falsehood (New York: Norton, 2001), 242.
5. Alexei Yurchak, Everything Was Forever, until It Was No More (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005); David L. Hoffmann, Stalinist Values: The Cultural Norms of Soviet Modernity, 1917–1941 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003); and Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: The Soviet Union in the 1930s (London: Oxford University Press, 1999). The autodidact and father of Russian rocketry, Konstantin Tsiolkovskii, like Gagarin, also attempted to construct his own persona in accordance with Soviet values: see James T. Andrews, Red Cosmos: K. E. Tsiolkovskii, Grandfather of Soviet Rocketry (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2009).
6. Vladislav Zubok, Zhivago’s Children: The Last Russian Intelligentsia (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), 151.
7. The cult of Gagarin is one subject of my forthcoming biography of Gagarin with Northern Illinois University Press; Jenks, The Cosmonaut Who Couldn’t Stop Smiling: The Life and Legend of Yuri Gagarin. For unpublished letters to the editor, see RGAE, f. 9453, o. 2, dd. 21, 30, 32, 33, 34; and Gagarin Unified Museum, Gagarin, a fond simply titled
“Pis’ma v adres pervogo kosmonavta.” See also letters sent to the Soviet Academy of Sciences contained in RAN, f. 1647, o, 1, d. 260.
8. “108 minut, kotorye potriasli mir,” Izvestiia, February 26, 2002, electronic edition, http://main.izvestia.ru/chronicles/article14994; and Iurii Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Geroi Otechestva, 2004), 515.
9. Petr Vail’ and Aleksandr Genis, 60-e—Mir sovetskogo cheloveka (Moscow: Novoe lit-eraturnoe obozrenie, 1996), 14.
10. Ibid., 176.
11. Vaclav Havel, Living in Truth: Twenty-two Essays Published on the Occasion of the Award of the Erasmus Prize to Vaclav Havel (London: Faber and Faber, 1990), 39.
12. Cited in Campbell, Liar’s Tale, 214.
13. Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 243.
14. “Text of Soviet Party’s Draft Program,” New York Times, August 1, 1961, 17.
15. Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina, 214, 268; and A. T. Gagarina, Slovo o syne, 3rd edition (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1986), 70.
16. A copy of 1960 and 1961 censorship guidelines for Soviet newspaper editors is in the Partinyi Arkhiv Saratovskoi Oblasti, f. 594, o. 2, d. 4653, ll. 97–122.
17. Kamanin’s diaries, published posthumously by his son, provide a rare glimpse into the behind-the-scenes world of the cosmonauts and into Kamanin’s active role as a creator of Gagarin’s public persona. See volume 1 for Kamanin’s role in crafting the public narrative of Soviet space conquest: N. P. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos: Kniga pervaia, 1960–63
(Moscow: Infortekst, 1995), 4 vols.
18. Stranitsy istorii: Pokrovsk-Engel’s, 4-yi vypusk (March 2004), 8.
284 Notes to pages 112–121
19. Valentina Ponomareva, Zhenskoe litso kosmosa (Moscow: Fond “Gelios,” 2002), 123–24, 161.
20. One American news source did not believe the lie. “Farmers Relate Gagarin Landing,” New York Times, April 15, 1961, 2. The New York Times later pressed the Soviets on the issue of whether Gagarin actually landed in his capsule, but the Soviets maintained the lie: “Could Ride Spaceship to Earth, Russian Says,” New York Times, August 28, 1962, 13.
21. Ponomareva, Zhenskoe litso kosmosa, 248.
22. “Gagarin ne govoril, chto ne videl Boga,” Pravda, April 12, 2006, online edition, http://www.pravda.ru/print/society/814550-gargarin-0; and Nikolai Denisov, Khorosho, khorosho, Gagarin (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1963), 285 . For the various obfuscations perpetrated by Gagarin and his entourage at press conferences following the flight, see Asif A. Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000; reprint, 2003), 282–84; and Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina, 210–11. On the ethos of secrecy in the Soviet space program, see Svetlana Boym’s essay in the photograph collection, Kosmos: A Portrait of the Russian Space Age (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Architectural Press, 2001), 91.
23. RAN, f. 1647, o. 1, d. 260, l. 7.
24. For Gagarin as an ambassador of peace, see the account of his travels abroad by the Pravda journalist who accompanied him: Denisov, Khorosho, khorosho, Gagarin.
25. Denisov, Khorosho, khorosho, Gagarin, 233; Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 182–83; and “Rocket Warning Issued in Moscow,” New York Times, April 22, 1961, 9.
26. Valentina Gagarina, 108 minut i vsia zhizn’, 2nd edition (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1982), 29, 31; Boym, Kosmos, 90.
27. Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina, 285.
28. Valentin A. Gagarin, Moi brat Iurii: Dokumental’naia povest’ / literaturnaia zapis’
(Moscow: ITRK, 2002), 318.
29. Gagarina, 108 minut i vsia zhizn’, 78–79.
30. Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 103–6.
31. Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina, 268, 294; Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 192, 197, 383, 503, 569.
32. Aleksandr Emel’ianenkov, “A tret’im byl Kheminguei,” Rossiiskaia gazeta, March 5, 2009, available online at http://www.rg.ru/printable/2009/03/05/leonov.html.
33. Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina, 282.
34. Ibid., 279.
35. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 57–58; int
erview conducted by author with the cosmonaut Valentina Ponomareva, Moscow, June 28, 2007.
36. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 58–59.
37. Ibid., 57–62.
38. Ibid., 62; Yevgeny Yevtushenko, Wild Berries, translated by Antonina W. Bouis (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1981), 9–10.
39. Iulia Turovtseva, “Vam poruchaetsia postoianno nakhodit’sia pri tovarishche Gagarine,” Izvestiia, April 10, 2009, available online at http://www.izvestia.ru/nystory
/article3127306/?print.
40. Sergei Borisov, “45 let poletu cheloveka v kosmos,” Moskovskie novosti, April 12, 2006.
41. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 66.
42. Ibid., 63, 65.
43. Vail’ and Genis, 60-e—Mir sovetskogo cheloveka, 23.
44. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 60.
Notes to pages 121–130 285
45. Gagarina, 108 minut i vsia zhizn’, 98; Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina, 104.
46. Gagarina, 108 minut i vsia zhizn’, 85, 92, 96, 98, 123; Gagarina, Slovo o syne, 136.
47. On the problem of public and private life, see this collection of essays: Lewis Siegelbaum, ed., Borders of Socialism: The Private Sphere in the Soviet Union (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
48. Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina, 77, 108; Gagarina, 108 minut i vsia zhizn’, 91, 98.
49. “Kakovo cheloveku v skafandre legend,” an interview with the academician Oleg Gazenko, one of the doctors who checked Gagarin’s physical health after his flight; available online at http://www.rtc.ru/encyk/gagarin/bl11.shtml.
50. Gagarina, 108 minut i vsia zhizn’, 92, 93, 95, 96, 99.
51. Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 504; Gagarina, 108 minut i vsia zhizn’, 90, 97.
52. Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 155; Belotserkovskii, Pervyi kosmonavt, 303.
53. Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina, 77, 87–90, 95, 97.
54. Belotserkovskii, Pervyi kosmonavt, 303.
55. Vladimir Vysotskii, “Ia pervyi smeril zhizn’ obratnym schetom,” available online at http://www.rtc.ru/encyk/gagarin/stihi1.shtml; Gagarina, 108 minut i vsia zhizn’, 81, 92.
Havel referred to citizens in “post-totalitarian” Soviet bloc states as “both victims of the system and its instruments.” Havel, Living in Truth, 52.
56. Campbell, Liar’s Tale, 214.
57. Gagarina, 108 minut i vsia zhizn’, 100.
58. RGAE, f. 9453, o. 2, d. 34, ll. 37–39, 56.
59. RGAE, f. 9453, o. 2, d. 34, ll. 39–41, 76, 190.
60. One legend claimed that the Italian beauty Gina Lollobrigida, who did meet Gagarin, supposedly snuck around KGB officers to get into his hotel room, surprising him in the hotel bathroom. Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 594–95.
61. GARF, f. 4459, o. 43, d. 1011, ll. 98–100, 117, 184, 237, 247; A. A. Lobnev, “Voz-vrashchenie pervogokosmonautu,” Gagarinskii sbornik, Materialy XXX obshchestvenno-nauchnykh chtenii, posviashchennykh pamiati Iu. A Gargarina 2003 g. (chast’1) (City of Gagarin: Ob’edinennyi memorial’nyi muzei Iu. A. Gagarina, 2004), 97–107; Nash Gagarin: Materialy o prebyvanii letchika-kosmonavta SSSR Iu. A. Gagarina v Kaluzhskom krae (Kaluga: Zolotaia alleia, 2006), 37.
62. On rumors in the Soviet state, see Timothy Johnston, “Subversive Tales? War Ru-mours in the Soviet Union, 1945–1947,” in Late Stalinist Russia: Society between Reconstruction and Reinvention, edited by Juliane Furst (London: Routledge, 2006), 62–78.
63. John Noble Wilford, “Soviet Lifting Veil on Death of Astronaut,” New York Times, February 7, 1988, 19.
64. Belotserkovskii, Pervyi kosmonavt, 102–3. Gagarin’s wife had little faith in the government commission that investigated his death. Gagarina, 108 minut i vsia zhizn’, 124.
65. Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 594; Alvin Klein, “Play on Cosmonaut Lands in Sea of Vacuity,” New York Times, April 26, 1981, LI 15; and Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina, 199–205, discusses the many popular explanations of Gagarin’s death, including twenty different popular versions in 1996.
66. Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina, 201–4; Belotserkovskii, Pervyi kosmonavt, 188–201; see also S. M. Belotserkovskii, Gibel’ Gagarina: Fakty i domysly (Moscow: Mashinostroenie, 1992).
67. Serguei Alex. Oushakine, The Patriotism of Despair: Nation, War, and Loss in Russia (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2009), 74; and Belotserkovskii, Pervyi kosmonavt, 307.
286 Notes to pages 131–135
68. Cited in Bok, Secrets, 199.
69. “Elena Gargarina: ‘v zvezdnom . . . gorodke byla chudesnaia zhizn,’” Izvestiia, March 3, 2004, online edition, http://www.ru/person/article44900; Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 338.
70. Denis Tukmakov, “Gagarin i natsiia,” Russkii zhurnal, April 12, 2006, online edition, http://www.ru/comments/115335709?mode=print; Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina, 277, 386.
71. See “Yuri Gagarin: His Life in Pictures,” at http://www.russianarchives.com/gal-lery/gagarin/index.html.
72. David King, The Commissar Vanishes: The Falsification of Photographs and Art in Stalin’s Russia (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997).
6. Cold War Celebrity and the Courageous Canine Scout
1. On the significance of the often unacknowledged but shared legacy of the enlightenment in the cultural Cold War, see David Caute, The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 4, 38–39; and Susan Buck-Morss, Dreamworld and Catastrophe: The Passing of Mass Utopia in East and West (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002).
2. In the voluminous and rapidly expanding interdisciplinary field of animal studies, historians have taken methodological inspiration from environmental history as well as the traditions of social and cultural history. For the former, see Harriet Ritvo, “Animal Planet,” Environmental History 9 (2004): 204–20; and Edmund Russell, “Evolutionary History: Prospectus for a New Field,” Environmental History 8 (2003): 204–29. For the latter, see such pioneering studies as Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989); Kath-leen Kete, The Beast in the Boudoir: Petkeeping in Nineteenth-century Paris (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); and Nigel Rothfels, Savages and Beasts: The Birth of the Modern Zoo (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002). Recent studies of particular interest to historians include Dorothee Brantz, ed., Beastly Natures: Animals, Humans, and the Study of History (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010). For an introduction to animal studies in the Russian field, see Jane Costlow and Amy Nelson, eds., Other Animals: Beyond the Human in Russian Culture and History (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2010).
3. Daniel Todes, Pavlov’s Physiology Factory: Experiment, Interpretation, Laboratory Enterprise (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 93–101. On animals as technologies versus organisms, see Stephen Pemberton, “Canine Technologies, Model Patients: The Historical Production of Hemophiliac Dogs in American Biomedicine,” in Industrializing Organisms: Introducing Evolutionary History, edited by Susan R. Schrepfer and Philip Scranton (New York: Routledge, 2004), 191–213; and Bruno Latour, “The Costly Ghastly Kitchen,” in The Laboratory Revolution In Medicine, edited by Perry Williams and Andrew Cunningham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002 [1992]), 295–303.
4. Anita Guerrini, Experimenting with Humans and Animals: From Galen to Animal Rights (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), x. On the sociological concept of “boundary object,” see Susan Leigh Star and James R. Griesemer, “Institutional Ecology, ‘Translations,’ and Boundary Object: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley’s Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907–39,” Social Studies of Science 19 (1989): 387–420.
5. Star and Griesemer, “Institutional Ecology,” 412–13.
6. An emerging scholarly consensus sees domestication as a collaborative relationship
Notes to pages 135–137 287
with ongoing evolutionary consequences for both species.
This is the premise of recent innovative work by such ethologists as Vilmos Csányi and Ádam Miklósi. On the implications of this collaborative view of domestication for human history, see Richard W. Bulliet, Hunters, Herders, and Hamburgers: The Past and Future of Human-Animal Relationships (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005).
7. Ádam Miklósi, Dog Behavior, Evolution, and Cognition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 165.
8. Donna J. Haraway, When Species Meet (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 16.
9. Asif A. Siddiqi, The Red Rockets’ Glare: Spaceflight and the Soviet Imagination, 1857–
1957 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
10. James T. Andrews, Science for the Masses: The Bolshevik State, Public Science, and the Popular Imagination in Soviet Russia, 1917–1934 (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2003), 85–86; also see James T. Andrews’s chapter in this volume, “Getting Ready for Khrushchev’s Sputnik,” as well as his book, Red Cosmos: K. E. Tsiolkovskii, Grandfather of Soviet Rocketry (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2009).
11. Peder Anker, “The Ecological Colonization of Space,” Environmental History 10
(2005): 239–68.
12. The most important scholarship on the early Soviet space program includes Asif A. Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2000); Asif A. Siddiqi, The Soviet Space Race with Apollo (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2000); James Harford, Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997); Yu. A. Mozzhorin et al., eds.,
Dorogi v kosmos: Vospominaniia veteranov raketno-kosmicheskoi tekhniki i kosmonavtiki, 2
vols. (Moscow: Izdatel’svto MAI, 1992); Yaroslav Golovanov, Korolev: Fakty i mify (Moscow: Nauka, 1994); and B. E. Chertok, Rockets and People, vols. 1–3, translated by Asif A. Siddiqi (Washington, D.C.: NASA History Division, 2006–9).
13. On the Americans’ preference for animals “closer to man” versus the Soviets’ choice of dogs, see Clyde R. Bergwin and William T. Coleman, Animal Astronauts: They Opened the Way to the Stars (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963), 57–69; Colin Burgess and Chris Dubbs, Animals in Space: From Research Rockets to the Space Shuttle (New York: Springer, 2007), 39–40, 63, 189–90, 239–71; Strel’chuk and Gartsshtein, “Chertveronogie pomoshchniki uchenykh,” Kresnaia zvezda, August 27, 1960, 3; V. Borisov and O. Gorlov, Zhizn’ i kosmos (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1961), 136–39; and P. Sharov, “Dorogi v kosmos liudiam prolozhili sobaki,” Novosti kosmonavtiki 19, no. 1 (2009): 65.