Into the Cosmos Page 42

  /golovanov/gol-zap/1/kn1-1.html#10.

  63. See, for example, Georgiy Baidukov, Russian Lindbergh: The Life of Valery Chkalov (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991).

  64. Jan Plamper, “Abolishing Ambiguity: Soviet Censorship Practices in the 1930s,”

  Russian Review 60, no. 4 (October 2001): 526–44.

  65. V. P. Glushko to A. M. Prokhorov (May 19, 1983), in Izbrannye raboty akademika V. P. Glushko, chast’ 3 (Khimki: OAO ‘NPO Energomash im. akademika V. P. Glushko’, 2008), 88–90.

  66. For more on the controversy, see Nazarov, “You Cannot Paper Space with Rubles.”

  The encyclopedia in question was Valentin P. Glushko, ed., Kosmonavtika: Entsiklopediia (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1985).

  67. Asif A. Siddiqi, “Privatising Memory: The Soviet Space Programme through Museums and Memoirs,” in Showcasing Space: Artefacts Series: Studies in the History of Science and Technology, edited by Martin Collins and Douglas Millard (London: Science Museum, 2005), 98–115.

  68. See, for example, David King, The Commissar Vanishes: The Falsification of Photographs and Art in Stalin’s Russia (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997).

  69. For examples, see James E. Oberg, Red Star in Orbit (New York: Random House, 1981).

  70. See, for example, the configurations show in Aviation Week, July 17, 1961, 30; and in Missiles and Rockets, December 18, 1961, 16.

  71. V. Lavreniuk, “Kosmicheskie miry andreia sokolova,” Voin rossii no. 4 (2001): 94–

  96.

  72. Iaroslav Golovanov, “Velikie mgnoven’ia torzhestva: K 30-letiiu pervogo poleta cheloveka v kosmos,” Kommunist, no. 5 (1991): 43–51.

  73. Anatolii Agranovskii, Izbrannoe (Moscow: Izvestiia, 1987), 18, cited in Thomas C.

  Wolfe, Governing Soviet Journalism: The Press and the Socialist Person after Stalin (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 88–89.

  74. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 9, emphasis mine.

  75. Wolfe, Governing Soviet Journalism, 30; and Jeffrey Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000).

  Notes to pages 78–80  277

  4. The Human inside a Propaganda Machine

  1. Iurii M. Baturin, ed., Sovetskaia kosmicheskaia initsiativa v gosudarstvennykh dokumentakh, 1946–1964 gg. (Moscow: RTSoft, 2008), 123–25.

  2. Valentina Ponomareva, Zhenskoe litso kosmosa (Moscow: Gelios, 2002), 122.

  3. Scott W. Palmer, Dictatorship of the Air: Aviation Culture and the Fate of Modern Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

  4. Ponomareva, Zhenskoe litso kosmosa, 122.

  5. Baturin, Sovetskaia kosmicheskaia initsiativa, 165–66.

  6. Iaroslav Golovanov, Nash Gagarin (Moscow: Progress, 1978), 190.

  7. Missions of exploration in Russian history—from Yermak’s Siberian conquests in the sixteenth century to Petr Semenov-Tian’-Shanskii’s expeditions to Central Asia in the nineteenth century—often acquired a larger symbolic meaning beyond their narrow utili-tarian function. For reform-minded Russian intellectuals in the mid-nineteenth-century, for example, the exploration of the Russian Far East affirmed Russia’s unique role as a Eurasian nation, which encompassed Europe and Asia both geographically and ideologically.

  See Mark Bassin, Imperial Visions: Nationalist Imagination and Geographical Expansion in the Russian Far East, 1840–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

  8. On the Khrushchev period, see Polly Jones, ed., The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization: Negotiating Cultural and Social Change in the Khrushchev Era (London: Routledge, 2006); and William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003).

  9. On the construction of Soviet space myths, see Slava Gerovitch, “‘Why Are We Telling Lies?’ The Creation of Soviet Space History Myths,” The Russian Review (forthcoming).

  10. See James T. Andrews, “In Search of a Red Cosmos: Space Exploration, Public Culture, and Soviet Society,” in Societal Impact of Spaceflight, edited by Stephen J. Dick and Roger D. Launius (Washington, D.C.: NASA, 2007), 41–52; Michael Froggatt, “Renouncing Dogma, Teaching Utopia: Science in Schools under Khrushchev,” in The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization: Negotiating Cultural and Social Change in the Khrushchev Era, edited by Polly Jones (London: Routledge, 2006), 250–66; Michael Froggatt, “Science in Propaganda and Popular Culture in the USSR under Khrushchev (1953–1964)” (PhD diss., University of Oxford, 2006); Paul Josephson, “Rockets, Reactors, and Soviet Culture,” in Science and the Soviet Social Order, edited by Loren R. Graham (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), 168–91; Cathleen S. Lewis, “The Red Stuff: A History of the Public and Material Culture of Early Human Spaceflight in the U.S.S.R.” (PhD diss., George Washington University, 2008); Walter A. McDougall, . . . The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York: Basic Books, 1985); and Trevor Rockwell, “The Molding of the Rising Generation: Soviet Propaganda and the Hero-Myth of Iurii Gagarin,” Past Imperfect 12 (2006), available online at http://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/pi/article

  /view/1579/1105.

  11. Lewis, “Red Stuff,” 99–100.

  12. Extensive literature on Soviet self-fashioning in the 1930s has followed the pioneering work of Sheila Fitzpatrick, Igal Halfin, Jochen Hellbeck, and Stephen Kotkin. See Sheila Fitzpatrick, Tear off the Masks! Identity and Imposture in Twentieth-century Russia (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005); Igal Halfin, Terror in My Soul: Communist Autobiographies on Trial (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003); Jochen Hellbeck, Revolution on My Mind: Writing a Diary under Stalin (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, May 2006); and Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).

  278  Notes to pages 80–84

  13. See Slava Gerovitch, “‘New Soviet Man’ inside Machine: Human Engineering,

  Spacecraft Design, and the Construction of Communism,” in Osiris (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), vol. 22, 135–57; the volume is titled The Self as Project: Politics and the Human Sciences in the Twentieth Century, edited by Greg Eghigian, Andreas Killen, and Christine Leuenberger.

  14. Propaganda in the Soviet Union was directed by the Agitation and Propaganda Department of the Party Central Committee, or Agitprop (later the Ideological Department).

  Similar departments and positions were established at party committees at all levels—

  from Soviet republics to regions to cities to individual enterprises. These departments issued ideological work guidelines and implemented them in the media and through various public events, such as mass demonstrations, lectures, and seminars. After the denunciation of Stalin’s “personality cult,” the propaganda apparatus was undergoing a reform aimed at eliminating dogmatism and falsehoods, “brightening up” propaganda discourse, and expanding into new media, such as television. See Antony Buzek, How the Communist Press Works (London: Pall Mall, 1964); and Rockwell, “Molding of the Rising Generation.”

  15. Programme of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Moscow: Foreign Languages, 1961), 109.

  16. Evgenii Riabchikov, “Volia k pobede,” Aviatsiia i kosmonavtika, no. 4 (1962): 19; emphasis mine. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are mine.

  17. Mikhail B. Chernenko, ed., V kosmose Nikolaev i Popovich (Moscow: Pravda, 1963), 92.

  18. Iurii Baturin, ed., Sovetskie i rossiiskie kosmonavty: 1960–2000 (Moscow: Novosti kosmonavtiki, 2001); and Asif A. Siddiqi, Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 (Washington, D.C.: NASA, 2000), 246.

  19. Iurii Ustinov, Bessmertie Gagarina (Moscow: Geroi Otechestva, 2004), 291.

  20. German [Gherman] Titov, Golubaia moia planeta (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1977), 207–8.

  21. Nikolai Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 4 vols. (Moscow: Infortekst/Novosti kosmonavtiki, 1995–2001), 1:54.

  22. On the symbolic continuity
between Stalin-era aviators and Khrushchev-era cosmonauts, see Gerovitch, “‘New Soviet Man’ inside Machine.”

  23. John McCannon, Red Arctic: Polar Exploration and the Myth of the North in the Soviet Union, 1932–1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 68.

  24. See Jay Bergman, “Valerii Chkalov: Soviet Pilot as New Soviet Man,” Journal of Contemporary History 33, no. 1 (1998): 135–52; and Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual, 2nd edition (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1985), 124–29.

  25. Iaroslav Golovanov, Korolev: Fakty i mify (Moscow: Nauka, 1994), 665.

  26. See Baturin, Sovetskaia kosmicheskaia initsiativa, 201–2; Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:101–2; and Aleksandr M. Pesliak, “Den’ kosmonavtiki: Istoricheskie fakty i sovremennyi analiz,” Novosti kosmonavtiki, no. 6 (2005): 24–25.

  27. Programme of the Communist Party, 17.

  28. Baturin, Sovetskaia kosmicheskaia initsiativa, 202–3.

  29. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:55.

  30. Ibid., 2:58.

  31. Iina Kohonen, “The Heroic and the Ordinary: Photographic Representations of Soviet Cosmonauts in the Early 1960’s,” in Soviet Space Culture: Cosmic Enthusiasm in Socialist Societies, edited by Eva Maurer, Julia Richers, Monica Rüthers, and Carmen Scheide (London: Palgrave, 2011).

  32. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:199.

  33. Ibid., 2:71.

  Notes to pages 84–90  279

  34. Ibid., 1:221.

  35. Ibid., 1:329.

  36. Ibid., 1:291.

  37. Ibid., 2:125.

  38. Ibid., 1:333.

  39. Viktor Mitroshenkov, Zemlia pod nebom: Khronika zhizni Iuriia Gagarina, 2nd edition (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1987), 317.

  40. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 2:332.

  41. Ibid., 1:108.

  42. Ibid., 2:217.

  43. Ibid., 1:346.

  44. Ibid., 2:232–33.

  45. Ibid., 1:71–72.

  46. Ibid., 1:210.

  47. Ibid., 2:239.

  48. Ibid., 1:313.

  49. “Akt o rezul’tatakh ekzamenov,” January 18, 1961; Gagarin Memorial Museum

  Archive, Town of Gagarin, Smolensk Region, Russia.

  50. Golovanov, Nash Gagarin, 56.

  51. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 2:233.

  52. Ibid., 2:269.

  53. Ibid., 1:219.

  54. Ibid., 1:376.

  55. Ibid., 1:352.

  56. Ibid., 1:369.

  57. Ibid., 1:376.

  58. Ibid., 1:281.

  59. Ibid., 2:29.

  60. For a list of cosmonaut biographies and a shrewd analysis of their underlying pattern, see Lewis, “Red Stuff,” chapter 2, “Selecting Spacemen, Creating Icons: The First Cosmonauts and Their Stories.”

  61. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:225, 1:236.

  62. Ibid., 1:226.

  63. Ibid., 4:182.

  64. Ibid., 4:152.

  65. See Rockwell, “Molding of the Rising Generation.”

  66. Programme of the Communist Party, 108–9.

  67. Quoted in Golovanov, Nash Gagarin, 272.

  68. Ibid., 31.

  69. Khodzha Akhmad Abbas [Khwaja Ahmad Abbas], “Rasskaz o Iurii Gagarine,” Aviatsiia i kosmonavtika, no. 4 (1962): 78–85.

  70. Golovanov, Nash Gagarin, 281.

  71. Vladimir Rossoshanskii, Fenomen Gagarina (Saratov: Letopis, 2004), 20.

  72. Abbas, “Rasskaz o Iurii Gagarine.”

  73. Baturin, Sovetskaia kosmicheskaia initsiativa, 148–49, 190–91, 227–28, 261–63, 277–78.

  74. Richard Stites, Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 145–46.

  75. Ponomareva, Zhenskoe litso kosmosa, 122.

  280  Notes to pages 90–94

  76. Loren R. Graham, Moscow Stories (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 18–19.

  77. Donald J. Raleigh, trans. and ed., Russia’s Sputnik Generation: Soviet Baby Boomers Talk about Their Lives (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 133.

  78. Boris A. Grushin, Chetyre zhizni Rossii v zerkale oprosov obshchestvennogo mneniia, vol. 1, Zhizn’ 1-ia: Epokha Khrushcheva (Moscow: Progess-Traditsiia, 2001), 403.

  79. Konstantin Feoktistov, Traektoriia zhizni (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), 188. See also Ponomareva, Zhenskoe litso, 242.

  80. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:164.

  81. Ibid., 2:57.

  82. Ibid., 2:90.

  83. Ibid., 2:10.

  84. Ibid., 1:224 and 2:198.

  85. Ibid., 2:187.

  86. Ibid., 1:170.

  87. Ibid., 4:252.

  88. Eduard Buinovskii, Priobshchenie k kosmosu: Zapiski nesletavshego kosmonavta, chapter 6; available online at http://samlibo.ru/b/bujnowskij_e_i/priobshenie.html.

  89. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:123.

  90. Ibid., 2:57.

  91. Golovanov, Nash Gagarin, 183.

  92. Abbas, “Rasskaz o Iurii Gagarine.”

  93. Iaroslav Golovanov, Zametki vashego sovremennika, vol. 1, 1953–1970 (Moscow: Dobroe slovo, 2001), 278.

  94. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:57.

  95. Ibid., 1:73.

  96. Simon Greenhalgh, “Captured on Camera—Gagarin in Trafford,” October 4, 2007, available online at http://www.messengernewspapers.co.uk/features/traffordthroughtime

  /display.var.1731776.0.captured_on_camera_gagarin_in_trafford.php.

  97. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 2:187.

  98. Ibid., 1:332.

  99. Ibid., 1:197–98.

  100. Ibid., 1:76.

  101. Golovanov, Nash Gagarin, 207.

  102. Ibid., 211.

  103. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:75.

  104. Ibid., 1:77.

  105. Nikolai Kamanin, “Grazhdanin Sovetskogo Soiuza,” Aviatsiia i kosmonavtika, no.

  3 (1962), available online at http:// epizodsspace.airbase.ru/bibl/a-i-k/1962/grajdanin.html.

  106. Golovanov, Nash Gagarin, 211.

  107. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:369.

  108. Major General Leonid Goregliad to Marshal Konstantin Vershinin, February 12, 1962; Russian Government Archive of Contemporary History (RGANI), Moscow, f. 5, op.

  30, d. 400, l. 23.

  109. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:72.

  110. Ibid., 4:252.

  111. Ibid., 1:321.

  112. Ibid., 1:391.

  113. Ibid., 1:333.

  Notes to pages 94–101  281

  114. Ibid., 2:9.

  115. Ibid., 2:19.

  116. Ibid., 2:70.

  117. Ibid., 1:57.

  118. Golovanov, Nash Gagarin, 191.

  119. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:247.

  120. Ibid., 1:231.

  121. Boris V. Raushenbakh, P. S.: Postskriptum (Moscow: Pashkov Dom, 1999), 87.

  122. Rockwell, “Molding of the Rising Generation,” 34.

  123. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:59–60.

  124. Ibid., 2:8.

  125. Ibid., 1:258.

  126. Ibid., 1:189–90.

  127. Ibid., 1:98.

  128. Baturin, Sovetskaia kosmicheskaia initsiativa, 166, 174–77, 194–97, 219–20, 253–

  55, 266–69, 281–84, 288.

  129. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 1:224.

  130. Ibid., 2:196.

  131. Ibid., 1:98.

  132. Ibid., 1:224.

  133. Ibid., 2:195.

  134. Ibid., 4:116–17.

  135. Cited in Sheila Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 132.

  136. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 2:61.

  137. Ibid., 3:283.

  138. Ibid., 2:325–27, 332–33.

  139. Aleksei Eliseev, Zhizn’—kaplia v more (Moscow: Aviatsiia i kosmonavtika, 1998), 120, 93.

  140. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 2:26.

  141. Ibid., 2:40.

  142. Ibid., 2:10.

  143. Eventually Leonov agreed to the installation
of the bust in his home town of Ke-merovo. See Aleksei Leonov, “My mogli obletet’ lunu ran’she amerikantsev na polgoda,”

  Moskovskii komsomolets (May 29, 2004), available online at http://www.alfabank.ru/press

  /monitoring/2004/5/29/2.html.

  144. German [Gherman] Titov, “Vstrecha s Amerikoi,” Aviatsiia i kosmonavtika, no.

  7 (1962), available online at http://epizodsspace.airbase.ru/bibl/a-i-k/1962/vstrecha.html.

  145. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 2:326.

  146. Ibid., 1:332.

  147. Ibid., 1:374.

  148. Ibid., 1:230, 232.

  149. Ibid., 2:214.

  150. Ibid., 2:239, 250.

  151. Yuri Gagarin et al., “The Soviet Union Must Not Lag behind the United States in Space” (1965), translated by Slava Gerovitch, in Living through the Space Race, edited by William S. McConnell (Detroit, Mich.: Thomson Gale, 2006), 42–48.

  152. Kamanin, Skrytyi kosmos, 2:261.

  153. Ibid., 2:284.

  282  Notes to pages 101–108

  154. Ibid., 2:262.

  155. Vladimir Semichastnyi, Bespokoinoe serdtse (Moscow: Vagrius, 2002), 264–66.

  In May 1967, as a result of Kremlin’s internal power struggle, the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev forced Semichastnyi to resign, using as a pretext the scandal over Stalin’s daughter Svetlana Alliluyeva’s defection abroad; see Roy Medvedev, All Stalin’s Men (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor, 1985), 75.

  156. The cosmonauts followed a venerable Soviet tradition of combining the discourse of space exploration with communist propaganda. James Andrews has argued that in the 1920s and 1930s, the Russian space pioneer Konstantin Tsiolkovskii skillfully employed Bolshevik rhetoric to fashion himself as a sufferer under the tsarist regime and a thinker of a Marxist bent to gain support from the Soviet government. In turn, the government constructed its own propaganda image of Tsiolkovskii. Asif Siddiqi has further documented how Soviet rocket engineers and space enthusiasts created a powerful myth of Tsiolkovskii as the father of Soviet cosmonautics and dexterously manipulated Cold War sentiments to win an approval for the launch of Sputnik. See James T. Andrews, Red Cosmos: K. E.

  Tsiolkovskii, Grandfather of Soviet Rocketry (College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 2009); and Asif A. Siddiqi, The Red Rocket’s Glare: Space Flight and the Soviet Imagination, 1857–1957 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).