Into the Cosmos Page 44

  14. Mozzhorin et al., Dorogi v kosmos, 2:124–25.

  15. Accounts of the space dog program in English include Amy Nelson, “The Legacy of Laika: Celebrity, Sacrifice, and the Soviet Space Dogs,” in Brantz, Beastly Natures, 204–24; Asif A. Siddiqi, “There It Is! An Account of the First Dogs-in-Space Program,” Quest 5, no.

  3 (1996): 38–42; Colin Burgess, “Dogs Who Rode in Rockets,” Spaceflight 38 (December 1996): 421–23; and Burgess and Dubbs, Animals in Space, 61–84, 143–65, 213–18. The most accessible sources in Russian are participants’ memoirs: V. I. Iazdovskii, Na tropakh vselennoi. Vklad kosmicheskoi biologii i meditsiny v osvoenie kosmicheskogo prostranstva (Moscow: Slovo, 1996); A. Ivanov, Pervye stupeni. Zapiski inzhenera, 2nd edition (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1975); Ivan Kas’ian, “My, kosmicheskie mediki,” in . . . Tri, dva, odin! edited by V. K. Chanturiia (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1989), 257–98; and A. I. Ostashev and Elena Iur’evna Bashilova, comps., “Prelestnaia, spokoinaia Laika byla slavnoi sobakoi: K

  45-letiiu so dnia zapuska vtorogo ISZ,” Istoricheskii arkhiv 6 (2002): 11–18. Accessing the archival records of the program remains challenging for foreign researchers. A chronolog-

  288  Notes to pages 137–140

  ical listing of the dog flights based on archival materials is provided in I. B. Ushakov, V. S.

  Bednenko, and E. V. Lapayev, eds., Istoriia otechestvennoi kosmicheskoi meditsiny (Voronezh: Voronezhskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 2001), 17. At least fifteen dogs flew more than once, and several were renamed, making an overall calculation of the quantity of dogs involved in these experiments difficult.

  16. Sharov, “Dorogi v kosmos,” 65.

  17. Mozzhorin et al., Dorogi v kosmos, 2:127; Sharov, “Dorogi v kosmos,” 66; and Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge, 92–96.

  18. Mozzhorin et al., Dorogi v kosmos, 2:132–39; Ushakov, Bednenko, and Lapayev, Istoriia, 6–7; Burgess, “Dogs Who Rode in Rockets,” 422–23; and Burgess and Dubbs, Animals in Space, 70–78.

  19. Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge, 145. On the role of Korolev and the Soviet and American print media in the origins of the space race, see Asif A. Siddiqi,

  “Sputnik Fifty Years Later: New Evidence on its Origins,” Acta astronautica 63 (2008): 529–39; and Asif A. Siddiqi, “Korolev, Sputnik, and the International Geophysical Year,”

  in Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years since the Soviet Satellite, edited by Roger D. Launius, John M. Logsdon, and Robert W. Smith (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers,

  2000), 43–72.

  20. Mozzhorin et al., Dorogi v kosmos, 2:138–39; and Burgess and Dubbs, Animals in Space, 79.

  21. A. V. Pokrovskii, “Vital Activity of Animals during Rocket Flights into the Upper Atmosphere,” in Behind the Sputniks: A Survey of Soviet Space Science, edited by F. J. Krieger (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1958), 156–63.

  22. The phrase from “Vse vyshe” is “iz skazki stanet iav’iu.” K. Raspevin, “Pervye puteshestvenniki v kosmos,” Trud, February 16, 1957, 3.

  23. “Dogs Unharmed Sixty Miles Up,” The Times, February 18, 1957, 6; “Dogs in Seventy-mile Rocket Flights,” The Times, June 3, 1957, 10; “Soviet ‘Rocket Dogs’ Get Geophysical Year Role,” New York Times, June 9, 1957, 7; and Literaturnaia gazeta, June 8, 1957.

  24. “An Old Hand at Space Travel, the Russians Say,” New York Times, March 25, 1957.

  25. “O neobyknovennom ‘gode’ i o tekh, kto pobyval v kosmose,” Iunyi naturalist, no.

  9 (1957): 10–12.

  26. “Vtoroi iskusstvenyi sputnik vrashchaetsia vokrug zemli,” Izvestiia, November 5, 1957, 1; and “Soobshchenie TASS,” Pravda, November 4, 1957, 1.

  27. “Half-ton Satellite Circling Earth: Dog inside Reported in ‘Good’ Condition,” The Times, November 4, 1957, 10; “U.S. Smarting under the Satellites,” The Times, November 5, 1957, 10; and “Anniversary Display of Soviet Power,” The Times, November 8, 1957, 10.

  28. New York Times, November 4, 1957, 8; New York Times, November 5, 1957, 12; and The Times, November 4, 1957, 10.

  29. V. Polynin, “Sovetskim sputnikam privet!” Ogonek 46 (1957): 6.

  30. “Vse dal’she v kosmos,” Krasnaia zvezda, November 5, 1957; “O dvizhenii vtorogo iskusstvennogo sputnika zemli,” Izvestiia, November 5, 1957; and “Russian Indicates That Dog Will Die,” New York Times, November 5, 1957.

  31. Irina Volk, “Zhivoe suchshestvo v kosmose,” Literaturnaia gazeta, November 5, 1957; and “Name of Satellite Dog Breeds Confusion Here,” New York Times, November 5, 1957.

  32. S. Morozov, “Pervyi puteshestvennik v kosmos,” Ogonek, no. 46 (1957): 7.

  33. “Soobshchenie TASS,” Pravda, November 4, 1957, 1; “Vtoroi iskusstvenyi sputnik vrashchaetsia vokrug zemli,” Izvestiia, November 5, 1957, 1; “O dvizhenii iskusstvennykh sputnikov zemli,” Krasnaia zvezda, November 6, 1957, 2; and “O dvizhenii iskusstvennykh sputnikov zemli,” Izvestiia, November 7, 1957, 12.

  Notes to pages 140–145  289

  34. “O nabliudenii iskusstvennykh sputnikov zemli,” Pravda, November 8, 1957, 2.

  35. “O nabliudenii iskusstvennykh sputnikov zemli,” Izvestiia, November 11, 1957, 1.

  36. Max Frankel, “Satellite Return Set as Soviet Goal,” New York Times, November 16, 1957, 1; and Pravda, November 13, 1957, 2.

  37. Osgood Caruthers, “Soviet Space Dog Survives Fourth Trip,” New York Times, July 14, 1959. Otvazhnaia may have flown twice in August 1958 under the name Kusachka.

  38. The Times, July 9, 1959, 6.

  39. A. Golikov, “Piat’ poletov ‘Otvazhnoi’,” Ogonek 28 (1960): 30.

  40. “Kosmos stal blizhe,” Izvestiia, July 8, 1959.

  41. Boris Chertok, Rockets and People, vol. 3., Hot Days of the Cold War, edited by Asif Siddiqi (Washington, D.C.: NASA History Division, 2009), 40–41; Alexander Milkus, “Do

  ‘Belki’ i ‘Strelki’ v kosmose pogibli Laika, Chaika i Lisichka,” Komsomol’skaia pravda, August 18, 2000, 37; and Kelly Kizer Whitt, “Reluctant Astronauts: How Other Creatures Paved the Way for Human Space Travelers,” Astronomy 29, no. 4 (2001): 42.

  42. Chertok, Rockets and People, 3:50.

  43. Seymour Toppings, “Two Dogs Frisky after Space Trip; Condition ‘Perfect,’ Soviet Says,” New York Times, August 22, 1960, 1; “Satellite Dogs Shown in Moscow,” New York Times, August 23, 1960, 3; “Vydaiushcheesia dostizhenie sovetskoi nauki i tekhniki,” Krasnaia zvezda, August 25, 1960, 3; and “Krugovorot prirody v kabine kosmicheskogo korablia,” Literaturnaia gazeta, August 27, 1960, 1.

  44. “Sdelan novyi shag na puti k poletu cheloveka v kosmos,” Krasnaia zvezda, August 20, 1960, 1; “Kosmonavt, gotov’sia v put’,” Literaturnaia gazeta, August 23, 1960, 1; and

  Ogonek 35 (1960).

  45. Osgood Caruthers, “Five-ton Soviet Space Craft with Two Dogs Put in Orbit,”

  New York Times, December 2, 1960, 1; Seymour Toppings, “Soviet Space Craft with Dogs Aboard Burns on Re-entry,” New York Times, December 3, 1960, 1; “Tretii kosmicheskii v polete,” Krasnaia zvezda, December 2, 1960, 1; “O polete tret’ego sovetskogo korablia-sputnika,” Krasnaia zvezda, December 3, 1960, 1; and Chertok, Rockets and People, 3:52–53.

  46. Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge, 259–60; and Chertok, Rockets and People, 3:53–54.

  47. Krasnaia zvezda, March 11, 1961.

  48. “Kosmonavty, tovs’!” Krasnaia zvezda, March 29, 1961, 4.

  49. “Svershilos’!” Krasnaia zvezda, April 13, 1961, 3.

  50. “Kennedys Get Puppy as a Gift from Khrushchev,” New York Times, June 21, 1961, 4; and “Soviet Space Pup for Mrs. Kennedy,” The Times, June 21, 1961, 12.

  51. “O polete sputnika Kosmos-110,” Izvestiia, February 27, 1966, 6; “Eksperiment prodolzhaetsia,” Izvestiia, March 19, 1966, 5; “Biologicheskaia laboratoriia na orbite,” Izvestiia, March 1, 1966, 5; “Soviet Orbits Two Dogs for Biological Study,” New York Times, February 23, 1966, 1; Evert Clark, “Flight a
Puzzle to U.S.,” New York Times, February 24, 1966, 7; “Soviet Says Two Orbiting Dogs Provide Test for New Space Step,” New York Times, February 24, 1966, 7; and “Soviet Space Dogs Seen Moving About,” New York Times, February 28, 1966, 2.

  52. “Otchet of rabote po sozdanuiu bazy dlia odnovremennogo oblucheniia 330 sobak po programme ‘khronicheskogo eksperimenta’ (1965),” Rossiisskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv nauchno-tekhnicheskoi dokumentatsii (RGANTD), fond 4, opis 1, delo 45; Peter Grose,

  “Soviet Space Dogs Returned to Earth,” New York Times, March 17, 1966, 1; Raymond H.

  Anderson, “Soviet Dogs Lost Muscular Control in Space,” New York Times, May 17, 1966, 1; John Noble Wilford, “First Spanish Rocket,” New York Times, October 16, 1966, 78; and Thomas J. Hamilton, “Report on Space Dogs Indicates Astronaut Health Peril on Long

  290  Notes to pages 145–150

  Flights,” New York Times, November 21, 1968, 18; and “Soviet Subjecting Dogs to Radiation Like That in Space,” New York Times, October 20, 1968, 4.

  53. Introduction to Adam Bartos, Kosmos: A Portrait of the Russian Space Age, 1st edition (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2001), 89.

  54. W. Patrick McCray, Keep Watching the Skies! The Story of Operation Moonwatch and the Dawn of the Space Age (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008), 142–64; also see James T. Andrews’s chapter in this volume.

  55. Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge, 169. Also see Asif Siddiqi’s chapter in this volume.

  56. Golikov, “Piat’ poletov Otvazhnoi,” 30.

  57. “Belka, Strelka, i shcheniata,” Ogonek 8 (1961): 32–33.

  58. A. Golikov and I. Smirnov, “Mezhzvezdnye puteshestvenniki,” Ogonek 35 (1960): 2.

  59. V. Borisov and O. Gorlov, Zhizn’ i kosmos (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1961), 135–58; O Gorlov and V. Borisov, Zhivotnye v kosmose (Moscow: Znanie, 1960), 51–62; M. Vasil’ev, “Zhizn’ v kosmose,” Iunyi naturalist 8 (1960): 1; Igor Artem’ev, Iskusstvennyi sputnik Zemli (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo detskoi literatury Ministerstva Pros-veshcheniia RSFSR, 1958), 83, 91; and I. Strel’chuk and N. Gartsshtein, “Chertveronogie pomoshchniki uchenykh,” Krasnaia zvezda, August 27, 1960, 3.

  60. Amy Nelson, “A Hearth for a Dog: The Paradoxes of Soviet Pet Keeping,” in Borders of Socialism: The Private Sphere in the Soviet Union, edited by Lewis Siegelbaum (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 123–44. The reemergence of pet keeping tied into broader reformulations of domesticity and materialism as well. See Susan E. Reid, “Cold War in the Kitchen: Gender and the De-Stalinization of Consumer Taste under Khrushchev,” Slavic Review 61, no. 2 (Summer 2002): 211–52; Susan E. Reid, “The Meaning of Home: ‘The Only Bit of the World You Can Have to Yourself,’” in Siegelbaum, Borders of Socialism, 145–70; and Polly Jones, ed., The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization: Negotiating Cultural and Social Change in the Khrushchev Era (Oxford: Routledge, 2006).

  61. Nikolai Vasil’evich Demidov and Miron Borisovich Rivchun, Sobaki i koshki v bytu, (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo meditsinskoi literatury, 1959), 3; and A. M.

  Chel’tsov-Bebutov and N. N. Nemnonov, Nashi vernye druz’ia (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1974), 5.

  62. Demidov and Rivchun, Sobaki i koshki v bytu, 8–10; “Tol’ko li drug?” Sovetskaia Rossiia, July 16, 1971; and B. Bialik, “Zhizn’ i smert’ Belogo Bima,” Komsomol’skaia pravda, September 17, 1971.

  63. Kenneth Love, “Britons Protest Dog in Satellite,” New York Times, November 5, 1957, 12.

  64. Chel’tsov-Bebutov and Nemnonov, Nashi vernye druz’ia, 5; Demidov and Rivchun, Sobaki i koshki v bytu, 5; and B. Riabinin, Moi druz’ia (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo detskoi literatury, 1963).

  65. V. Nemtsov, “Fantasy, A Book and Life,” Soviet Union, no. 12 (December 1957): 39.

  66. Diane L. Beers, For the Prevention of Cruelty: The History of Animal Rights Activism in the United States (Athens: Swallow Press / University of Ohio Press, 2006), 162–80.

  67. Susan E. Lederer, “Political Animals: The Shaping of Biomedical Research Literature in Twentieth-century America,” Isis 83, no. 1 (1992): 61–79.

  68. Peter L. Smolders, Soviets in Space, translated by Marian Powell (New York, 1974), 103–4. M. A. Gerd and N. N. Gurovskii, Pervye kosmonavty i pervye razvedchiki kosmosa (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1962); Strel’chuk and Gartsshtein, “Chertveronogie pomoshchniki,” 3; and V. Borisov and O. Gorlov, Zhizn’ i kosmos (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1961), 136–38.

  Notes to pages 151–154  291

  69. Catriona Kelly and David Shepherd, eds., Constructing Russian Culture in the Age of Revolution, 1881–1940 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 254–55; Todes, Pavlov’s Physiology Factory, 123–52.

  70. Volk, “Zhivoe suchchestvo,” 2; Gorlov and Borisov, Zhivotnye v kosmose, 63; and Borisov and Gorlov, Zhizn’ i kosmos, 135.

  71. Strel’chuk and Gartsshtein, “Chetveronogie pomoshchniki,” 3

  72. Ostashev and Bashilova, “Prelestnaia, spokoinaia Laika,” 13.

  73. Golikov and Smirnov, “Mezhzvezdnye puteshestnenniki,” 2.

  74. V. N. Chernov and V. I. Yakovlev, “Research on Animal Flight in an Artificial Earth Satellite,” Iskusstvennye sputnik zemli (English) 1 (1960): 108–10.

  75. Kas’ian, “My kosmicheskie mediki,” 271.

  76. For details about the testing regimen, see Gerd and Gurovskii, Pervye kosmonavty i pervye razvedchiki; N. M. Sisiakian, ed., Problemy kosmicheskoi biologii, (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo akademii nauk SSSR, 1962), vol.1:377–91; N. Sisiakin, ed., Problemy kosmicheskoi biologii (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo akademii nauk SSSR, 1962), vol. 2:226–406; and M. A.

  Gerd, Reaktsii i povedenie sobak v ekstremal’nykh usloviiakh (Moscow: Nauka, 1976).

  77. Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge, 96; Gazenko also adopted one of the dogs that survived the crash landing in Siberia in December 1960. See “Interviu: Olegom Georgievichem, zapisannoe 7 ianvaria 2006,” online at http://sobaka.udmweb.ru/zv22

  .html.

  78. Chertok, Rockets and People, 3:41–42.

  79. Golovanov, Korolev, 550.

  80. Volk, “Zhivoe sushchestvo”; and Ostashev and Bashilova, “Prelestnaia, spokoinaia Laika,” 13.

  81. For a current summary of these rumors, see “Memorial to Laika,” available online at http://www.novareinna.com/bridge/laika.html; and Ted Strong, “Laika the Russian Space Dog!” available online at http://tedstrong.com/laika-trsd.shtml.

  82. Mozzhorin et al., Dorogi v kosmos, 1:60; and Golovanov, Korolev, 551.

  83. Sven Grahn, “Sputnik-2, Was It Really Built in a Month?” available online at http://

  www.svengrahn.pp.se/histind/Sputnik2/Sputnik2.htm; David Whitehouse, “First Dog in Space Died within Hours,” BBC News Online, October 28, 2002, available online at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2367681.stm; and Tim Radford, “Fate of First Canine Cosmonaut Revealed,” The Guardian, October 30, 2002, available online at http://www

  .guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,822152,00.html.

  84. Justine Hankins, “Lost in Space,” The Guardian, March 20, 2004, available online at http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,1172484,00.html. On the guilt that several researchers experienced in conjunction with Laika’s voyage, see Kas’ian, “My kosmicheskie mediki,” 273–75.

  85. A. Golikov and I. Smirnov, “Chetveronogie astronavty,” Ogonek 49 (1960): 2.

  86. The Soviet Union and several other Eastern bloc countries issued stamps of other space dogs, especially Belka, Strelka, Chernushka, and Zvezdochka.

  87. “Soviet Smokers Now Have Filters,” New York Times, September 11, 1958.

  88. On the ongoing resonance of Laika in contemporary global culture, see Amy Nelson, “The Music of Memory and Forgetting: Global Echoes of Sputnik 2,” in Remembering the Space Age, edited by Steven J. Dick (Washington, D.C.: NASA History Division, 2008), 237–25; and Amy Nelson, “Der abwesende Freund. Laikas kulturelles Nachleben,” in Ich
, das Tier: Tiere als Persönlichkeiten in der Kulturgeschichte, edited by Jessica Ullrich, Fried-rich Weltzien, and Heike Fuhlbrügge (Berlin: Reimer Verlag, 2008), 215–24.

  89. Star and Griesemer, “Institutional Ecology,” 393.

  292  Notes to pages 154–160

  90. Sisiakin, Problemy kosmicheskoi biologii, vols. 1–2 (1964); Gerd , Reaktsii i povedenie sobak; M. A. Gerd and N. N. Gurovskii, Pervye kosmonavty i pervye razvedchiki kosmosa, 2nd edition (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1965).

  91. Star and Griesemer, “Institutional Ecology,” 408.

  92. Leonid Vysheslavsky, “Pamiati Laiki” (In memory of Laika), in Zvezdnye sonety (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1962), 71. I am grateful to Andrew Jenks for bringing this poem to my attention.

  93. Walter A. McDougall, . . . The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997 [1985]), 3–4.

  7. Cosmic Enlightenment

  The author wishes to thank numerous institutions that supported this work and research, including the University of California at Berkeley’s History Department and Graduate Division, the Allan Sharlin Memorial Fellowship of UC Berkeley’s Institute of International Studies, the ACTR/ACCELS Advanced Research Fellowship, Fulbright-Hays, and the Charlotte W. Newcombe Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship in Religion and Ethics. I am also very grateful to Galina Zhelezniak and Vladimir Kozhanov for permission to use the wonderful images in this chapter. Epigraph: Vladimir Maiakovskii, “Listen!” in An Anthology of Russian Literature from Earliest Writings to Modern Fiction: Introduction to a Culture, edited by Nicholas Rzhevsky (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), 443.

  1. Viktor Pelevin, “The Code of the World” (Kod mira), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 2001, available online at http://pelevin.nov.ru/rass/pe-kod/1.html. All translations are mine, unless otherwise indicated.